James and Ruth Smith Endowed Professor
-
Department of Environmental Toxicology
Southern University and A&M College, Louisiana, USA
Phone: +1 225 771-4303
Email: rao_uppu@subr.edu
Education
September 1990 to July 1996 | Postdoctoral Fellow/Sr. (Free Radical Chemistry and Oxidative Biology) | The Biodynamics Institute, Louisiana State University (LSU), Baton Rouge, LA; Advisor: Dr. William A. Pryor |
July 1989 to May 1990 | Postdoctoral Fellow (Chemical Carcinogenesis) | July 1989 to May 1990; The Eppley Institute for Research in Cancer and Allied Diseases, University of Nebraska Medical Center (UNMC), Omaha, NE; Advisors: Dr. Ercole Cavalieri and Dr. Eleanor G. Rogan |
1982-1988 | Ph.D., Biochemistry | Osamia University, Hyderabad, TS, India (work performed at the National Institute of Nutrition (NIN), Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR), Hyderabad, TS, India); Advisor: Dr. S.G. Srikantia |
1975-1977 | M.Sc., Biochemistry | Andhra University, Waltair, AP, India |
1972-1975 | B.Sc., Chemistry | The Hindu College (an affliate college of Andhra University), Machilipatnam, AP, India (Mathematics and Physics – minors) |
Biography
Dr. Rao Uppu is the James and Ruth Smith Endowed Professor of Chemistry and Environmental Toxicology in the College of Sciences and Engineering at Southern University and A&M College, Baton Rouge, LA. He is an accomplished scientist who is recognized internationally for his work in environmental chemistry and molecular toxicology. His research interests include analytical methods for biological reactive intermediates, biomarker discovery and validation, cell signaling by 'ozone-specific' oxysterols, biomedical applications of core/shell nanoparticles, and fate and disposition of semi/persistent organics. Among others, Uppu is an elected Fellow of the Academy of Toxicological Sciences, Fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, Diplomate of the American Board of Toxicology, Registered Environmental Health Specialist/Registered Sanitarian, and a member of CyHABs Research Consortium (Ames, IA). Over the years, Uppu has mentored numerous MS and PhD graduates, postdoctoral researchers and junior faculty and published extensively in peer reviewed journals and book series.
Research Interest
- Oxidative and free radical reactions of ozone and nitric oxide-derived oxidants;
- Bioanalytical method development
- Biomarker discovery and validation
Scientific Activities
Positions and Employment
2016-present | James & Ruth Smith Endowed Professorship, Department of Environmental Toxicology, College of Sciences and Engineering, Southern University, Baton Rouge, Louisiana |
2017-present | Director of Toxicology, Siripharma Labs, San Jose Bio Cube 5941, Optical Court, San Jose, CA (part-time; mainly, summer months) |
2013-2016 | Director, Health Research Center, Southern University, Baton Rouge, Louisiana |
2013-2016 | Director, Environmental Toxicology PhD Program (later named the Department of Environmental Toxicology), Southern University, Baton Rouge, Louisiana |
2010-present | Graduate/Doctoral Research Faculty-Level 2, Southern University, Baton Rouge, Louisiana |
2008-present | Adjunct Professor of Pathobiological Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, Louisiana |
2007-present | Adjunct Professor of Chemistry, Southern University, Baton Rouge, Louisiana |
2007-present | Professor of Environmental Toxicology (Tenured), Southern University, Baton Rouge, Louisiana |
2002-07 | Associate Professor (Tenure-Track), Southern University, Baton Rouge, Louisiana |
2003-10 | Graduate/Doctoral Research Faculty-Level 1, Southern University, Baton Rouge, Louisiana |
2000-01 | Patent Examiner, US Patent & Trademark Office, Alexandria, VA |
1996-00 | Research Assistant Professor, Lousiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA |
1987-89 | Lecturer in Biochemistry, Nizam’s Institute of Medical Sciences (NIMS), Hyderabad, TS, India |
1984-87 | Assistant Research Officer, National Institute of Nutrition (NIN), Indian Council of Medical Researh, Hyderabad, TS, India |
1982-84 | Senior Research Fellow, Laboratory of Cell and Molecular Biology, Department of Zoology, Osmania University, Hyderabad, TS, India |
1978-81 | Junior Research Fellow, Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism, NIN, ICMR, Hyderabad,TS,India |
Other Experience and Professional Memberships
1980-1986 | Member, Society of Biological Chemists-India (SBCI) |
1982-1983 | Member, Human Genetics Society of India (HGSI) |
2002-present | Member, American Association for Advancement of Science (AAAS) |
2006-2012 | Member, Society for Free Radical Biology and Medicine (SFRBM) |
2004-present | Member, Society of Toxicology (SOT) |
2014-present | Member, National Environmental Health Association (NEHA) |
Awards, Board Certifications, and Honors
2017 | Becoming Everything You Are (BEYA) Science, Technology, Enginereringg and Mathematics (STEM) Innovators Award (one of the 1st ten inagural recipients selected from all over the United States) |
2017 | Nomination to serve on EPA Board of Scientific Councellors (nominator: Academy of Toxcolological Sciences, Raleigh, NC) |
2017 | Registered Environmental Health Specialist/Registered Saniatarian (REHS/RS; board certification/premier dual credentials of the National Environmental Health Association, NEHA) |
2015 | Elected Fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS Fellow, section on Chemistry; first and the only faculty member todate in the Southern University System to receive this prestigious recogntion) |
2015 | Elected Member, CyHABs Research Consortium (Ames, IA; multidisciplinary, multiinstitutional collaborative team to research on cyanobacterail algal blooms in fresh water and their impact animal and human health) |
2014 | Diplomate of the American Board of Toxicology (DABT; board certification) |
2013 | Member, Chancellor’s Advisory Committee on Intellectual Property, Southern University, Baton Rouge,LA |
2013 | Nomintation to the Presidential Awards for Excellence in Science, Mathematics & Engineering Mentoring (PAESMEM; nominator: Dean Emeritus Robert H. Miller, Jr., College of Sciences and Engineering, Southern University, Baton Rouge, LA) |
2013 | Elected Fellow of the Academy of Toxicological Sciences (ATS) |
2013 | Chancellor’s Award for Excellence in Teaching, Southern University, Baton Rouge, LA |
2011 | Southern University Business and Industry Cluster (BIC) Quality Award |
2011 | Telugu Association of North America (TANA) Excellence in Science Award |
2009 | Distinquihed Researcher, Louisiana Biomedical Reseach (LBRN)/National Insitutes of Health (NIH) |
2007 | Outstanding Research Investigator (SUBR-wide; received commendations from the U.S. Senate) |
2007 | Faculty Researcher of the Year (Natural Sciences), College of Sciences, Southern IUBR |
2006 | Outstanding Reseacher (Natural Sciences), College of Sciences, SUBR |
Publications
- B.K. London, M.O. Fletcher Claville, S. Babu, F.R. Fronczek, and R.M. Uppu, (2015). A co-crystal of nonahydrated disodium (II) with mixed anions from m-chlorobenzoic acid and furosemide. Acta Crystallogr.Commun. E 71, 1266-1269 (suppl. 1-8).
- S. Babu, S.N. Uppu, O. Agu, and R.M. Uppu (2015). Unusually high levels of bisphenol A (BPA) in thermal paper cash register receipts (CRs): development and application of a robust LC-UV method to quantify BPA in CRs. Toxicol. Mech. Methods. 29, 1-7.
- F. Mohammad, A.C. Raghavamenon, M.O. Claville, C.S. Kumar, and R.M. Uppu (2014). Targeted hyperthermia-induced cancer cell death by super paramagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles conjugated luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone. Nanotechnol Rev. 3, 389-400; doi: 10.1515/ntrev-2013-0041.
- S. Babu, S. Uppu, M.O. Claville, and R.M. Uppu (2013). Prooxidant actions of bisphenol A (BPA) phenoxyl radicals: implications to BPA-related oxidative stress and toxicity. Toxicol. Mech. Methods 23, 273-80; doi: 10.3109/15376516.2012.753969.
- B.V. Babu, V.K. Chaturvedi, and R.M. Uppu (2012). Herbs in the management of hyperglycemia in diabetes. Importance of screening methods in the identification of phyto anti-hyperglycemic principles. J. Diabetes Metab 3: e110; doi:10.4172/2155-6156.1000e110.
- S. Babu, V. Nadeem, A.V. Kasibotla, H.J. Dwayne, M.A. Stubblefield, and R.M. Uppu (2012). Molecular dockingof bisphenol A and its nitrated and chlorinated metabolites onto human estrogen-related receptor-gamma. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 426, 215-220; doi: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2012.08.065.
- T.T. Mutahi, B.J. Edagwa, F.R. Fronczek, and R.M. Uppu (2012). N-Acetyl-5-chloro-3-nitro-L-tyrosine ethyl ester. Acta Cryst. E. 68, o2810–o2811, Suppl. 1-8; doi:10.1107/S1600536812036380
- D.B. Casey, E.A. Pankey, A.M. Badejo, Jr., F.R. Bueno, Jr., M. Bhartiya, S.N. Murthy, R.M. Uppu, B.D. Nossaman, and P.Kadowitz (2012). Peroxynitrite has potent pulmonary vasodilator activity in the rat. Can J. Physiol. Pharmacol. 90, 485-500.
- R.M. Uppu and N.L. Parinandi (2011). Insulin sensitization and resistance interreationships revised with a quantitative molecular model approach. J. Diabet. Metab. 2, 6; doi:10.4172/2155-6156.1000106e
- S. Babu, C. Pathak, S. Uppu, C,. Jones, F.R. Fronczek, and R.M. Uppu (2011). 3,3’-Dinitrobisphenol A. Acta Crystallogr. E. 67, 2556-2557; Suppl. 1-21.
- L. Laynes, A.C. Raghavamenon, O. D’Auvergne, V. Achuthan, and R.M. Uppu (2011). MAPK signaling in H9c2 cardiomyoblasts exposed to cholesterol secoaldehyde – Role of hydrogen peroxide. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 404, 90-95.
- S. Babu, C. Pathak, S. Uppu, C. Jones, F.R. Fronczek, and R.M. Uppu (2010). Crystal structure of 3,3 ‘- dinitrobisphenol. Free Radic. Biol. Med. 51, S150-S151.
- A.C. Raghavamenon, A.F. Muyiwa, L.K. Davis, and R.M. Uppu (2011). Dihydroartemisinin induces caspase-8-dependent apoptosis in murine GT1-7 hypothalamic neurons. Toxicol. Mech. Methods. 21, 367-373; doi:10.3109/15376516.2011.552534.
- F. Mohammad, G. Balaji, A. Weber, R.M. Uppu, and C.S. Kumar (2010). Influence of gold nanoshell on hyperthermia of super paramagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles (SPIONs). J. Phys. Chem. C 114, 19194–19201.
- K. Sathishkumar, X. Gao, A.C. Raghavamenon, S.N. Murthy, P.J. Kadowitz, and R.M. Uppu (2010). Determination of glutathione, mitochondrial transmembrane potential, and cytotoxicity in H9c2 cardiomyoblasts exposed to reactive oxygen and nitrogen species. Methods Mol. Biol. 610, 51-61.
- K. Sathishkumar, A.C. Raghavamenon, K. Ganeshkumar, R. Telaprolu, N.L. Parinandi, and R.M. Uppu (2010). Simultaneous analysis of multiple redox-sensitive and apoptotic gene expression in hypothalamic neurons exposed to cholesterol ozonation products. Methods Mol. Biol. 610, 263-284.
- E.S. O’Connor Butler, J.N. Mazerik, J.P. Cruff, S.I. Sherwani, B.K. Weis, C.B. Marsh, A.C. Raghavamenon, R.M. Uppu, H.O. Schmid, and N.L. Parinandi (2010). Lipoxygenase-catalyzed phospholipid peroxidation: Preparation, purification, and characterization of phosphatidylinositol peroxides. Methods Mol. Biol. 610, 387-401.
- M.A. Kline, E.S. O’Connor Butler, A. Hinzey, S. Sliman, S.R. Kotta, C.B. Marsh, R.M. Uppu, and N.L. Parinandi (2010). A simple method for effective and safe removal of membrane cholesterol from lipid rafts in vascular endothelial cells: Implications in oxidant-mediated lipid signaling. Methods Mol. Biol. 610, 201-211.
- X . Gao, A.C. Raghavamenon, O. D’Auvergne, and R.M. Uppu (2009). Cholesterol secoaldehyde induces apoptosis in J774 macrophages via mitochondrial pathway but not involving reactive oxygen species as mediators. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 389, 382-387.
- S. Babu, A.C. Raghavamenon, F.R. Fronczek, and R.M. Uppu (2009). 4-Hydroxy-3-methoxy-5-nitroacetophenone (5-nitroapocynin). Acta Cryst. E 65, 2292-2293, Supl. 1-10.
- A.C. Raghavamenon, C.J. Dupard, B. Kandlakunta, and R.M. Uppu (2009). Determination of alloxan by fluorometric, reversed-phase HPLC. Toxicol. Mech. Methods. 19, 498-502.
- R.M. Uppu, C. Jones, and F.R. Fronczek (2009). Crystal structure of 5-nitroapocynin. Free Radic. Biol. Med. 47, S156-S156.
- A.C. Raghavamenon, R. Gernapudi, S. Babu, O. D’Auvergne, S.N. Murthy, P.J. Kadowitz, and R.M.Uppu (2009). Intracellular oxidative stress and cytotoxicity in rat primary cortical neurons exposed to cholesterol secoaldenyde. Biochem.Biophys. Res.Commun. 386, 170-174.
- K. Sathishkumar, X. Gao, A.C. Ragavamenon, N.L. Parinandi, W.A. Pryor, and R.M. Uppu (2009). Cholesterol secoaldehyde induces apoptosis in cardiomyocytes through reactive oxygen species involving mitochondrial and death receptor pathways. Free Radic. Biol. Med. 47, 548-558.
- K. Sathishkumar, S.N. Murthy, and R.M. Uppu (2007). Cytotoxic effects of oxysterols produced during ozonolysis of cholesterol in murine GT1-7 hypothalamic neurons. Free Radic. Res. 41, 82-88.
- K. Sathishkumar, X. Xi, R.J. Martin, and R.M. Uppu (2007). Cholesterol secoaldehyde induces amylodogenesis and apoptosis in murine GT1-7 hypothalamic neuronal cells. J. Alzheimer’s. Dis. 11, 261-274.
- R.M. Uppu, B.D. Nossaman, A.J. Greco, A. Fokin, S.N. Murthy, V. Fonseka, and P.J. Kadowitz (2007). Cardiovascular effects of peroxynitrite. Clin. Exp. Pharmacol. Physiol. 34, 933-937.
- C.-J. Dupard, B. Kandlakunta, and R.M. Uppu (2007). A reversed phase HPLC method for the determination of epoxides of 1,3-butadiene and other petrochemical alkenes. Anal. Bioanal. Chem. 387,1027-1032.
- K. Sathishkumar, V. Rangan, X. Gao, and R.M. Uppu (2007). Methyl vinyl ketone induces apoptosis in murine GT1-7 hypothalamic neurons through glutathione depletion and the generation of reactive oxygen species. Free Radic. Res. 41, 469-477.
- R.M. Uppu (2006). Synthesis of peroxynitrite using isoamyl nitrite and hydrogen peroxide in a homogeneous solvent system. Anal. Biochem. 354, 165-168.
- R. Cong, E. Tamyanko, P.S. Russo, N. Edwin, and R.M. Uppu (2006). Dynamics of poly (styrenesulfonate) in sodium salt in aqueous solution. Macromolecules 39, 731-739.
- K. Sathishkumar, M. Haque, T.E. Perumal, J. Francis, and R.M. Uppu (2005). A major ozonation product of cholesterol, 3-hydroxy-5-oxo-5,6-secocholestan-6-al, induces apoptosis in H9c2cardiomyoblasts. FEBS Lett. 579, 6444-6450.
- R.M. Uppu, K. Sathishkumar, and T. Perumal (2005). Reactions of peroxynitrite and peroxynitrite/CO2 with clozapine: evidence for the formation of electrophilic intermediates. Free Radic. Biol. Med. 39 (Suppl 1), S15-S15.
- R.M. Uppu, G.L. Squadrito, R.M. Bolzan, and W.A. Pryor (2000). Nitration and nitrosation by peroxynitrite: Role of CO2 and evidence for common intermediates. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 122, 6911-6916.
- G.L. Squadrito, R. Cueto, A.E. Splenser, A. Valvanidis, H. Zhang, R.M. Uppu, and W.A. Pryor (2000).
- Reaction of uric acid with peroxynitrite and implications for the mechanisms of neuroprotection by uric acid. Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 376, 333-337.
- R.M. Uppu and W.A. Pryor (1999). Nitrosation of 1,2-phenylenediamine by peroxynitrite/CO2. Evidence for a free radical mechanism. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 121, 9738-9739.
- R.M. Uppu and W.A. Pryor (1996). Synthesis of peroxynitrite in a two-phase system using isoamyl nitrite and hydrogen peroxide. Anal. Biochem. 236, 242-2449.
- H. Zhang, G.L. Squadrito, R.M. Uppu, and W.A. Pryor (1999). Reaction of peroxynitrite with melatonin. A mechanistic study. Chem. Res. Toxicol. 12, 526-534 (Hot article of the year).
- R.M. Bolzan, R. Cueto, G.L. Squadrito, R.M. Uppu, and W.A. Pryor (1999). Direct and simultaneous
- ultraviolet second derivative spectrophotometric determination on nitrite and nitrate in preparations of
- peroxynitrite. Methods Enzymol. 301, 179-187.
- R.M. Uppu, J.-N. Lemercier, G.L. Squadrito, H. Zhang, R.M. Bolzan, and W.A. Pryor (1998). Nitrosation by peroxynitrite: Use of phenol as a probe. Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 358, 1-16. R.M. Uppu, G.W. Winston, and W.A. Pryor (1997). Reactions of peroxynitrite with aldehydes as probes for the reactive intermediates responsible for biological nitration. Chem. Res. Toxicol. 10, 1331-1337
- W.A. Pryor, J.-N. Lemercier, H. Zhang, R.M. Uppu, and G.L. Squadrito (1997). The catalytic role of carbondioxide in the decomposition of peroxynitrite. Free Radical Biol. Med. 23, 331-338.
- H. Zhang, G.L. Squadrito, R.M. Uppu, J.-N. Lemercier, R. Cueto, and W.A. Pryor (1997). Inhibition of peroxynitrite-mediated oxidation of glutathione by carbon dioxide. Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 339, 183-189.
- J.-Lemercier, S. Padmaja, R. Cueto, G.L. Squadrito, R.M. Uppu, and W.A. Pryor (1997). Carbon dioxide modulation of nitration and hydroxylation of phenol by peroxynitrite. Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 345, 160-170.
- R.M. Uppu and W.A. Pryor (1996). Carbon dioxide catalysis of the reaction of peroxynitrite with ethyl acetoacetate. An example of aliphatic nitration by peroxynitrite. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 229, 764-769.
- R.M. Uppu, G.L. Squadrito, R. Cueto, and W.A. Pryor (1996). Selecting the most appropriate synthesis of peroxynitrite. Methods Enzymol. 269, 285-295.
- R.M. Uppu, G.L. Squadrito, R. Cueto, and W.A. Pryor (1996). Synthesis of peroxynitrite by the azide- ozone reaction. Methods Enzymol. 269, 311-321.
- R.M. Uppu and W.A. Pryor (1996). Biphasic synthesis of high concentrations of peroxynitrite using water insoluble alkyl nitrite and hydrogen peroxide. Methods Enzymol. 269, 322-329.
- G.L. Squadrito, X. Jin, R.M. Uppu, and W.A. Pryor (1996). Distinguishing reactivities of peroxynitrite and hydroxyl radical. Methods Enzymol. 269, 366-374.
- R.M. Uppu, R. Cueto, G.L. Squadrito, M.G. Salgo, and W.A. Pryor (1996). Competitive reactions of peroxynitrite with 2'-deoxyguanosine and 7,8-dihydro-8-hydroxy-2'-deoxyguanosine (8-oxodG): Relevance to the formation of 8-oxodG in DNA exposed to peroxynitrite. Free Radic. Biol. Med. 21, 407-411.
- J.-Lemercier, R.M. Uppu, R. Cueto, G.L. Squadrito, and W.A. Pryor (1996). Source of hydroxyphenols and nitrophenols in the CO2-catalysed oxidation of phenol by peroxynitrite. FASEB J. 10, 2297-2297.
- R.M. Uppu, R. Cueto, G.L. Squadrito, M.G. Salgo, and W.A. Pryor (1996). Recations of peroxynitrite with 2'-deoxyguanosine and 7,8-dihydro-8-hydroxy-2'-deoxyguanosine, and calf-thymus DNA. FASEB J. 10, 2304.
- R.M. Uppu and W.A. Pryor (1996). Synthesis of peroxynitrite in a two-phase system using isoamyl nitrite and hydrogen peroxide. Anal. Biochem. 236, 242-249.
- R.M. Uppu and W.A. Pryor (1996). CO2 catalysis of peroxynitrite-mediated oxidations. Abstarcts of papers of Am. Chem. Soc. 211, 396.
- R.M. Uppu, G.L. Squadrito, and W.A. Pryor (1996). Acceleration of peroxynitrite oxidations by carbondioxide. Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 327, 335-343.
- R.M. Uppu, R. Cueto, G.L. Squadrito, and W.A. Pryor (1995). What does ozone react with at the air lung interface-model studies using human red-blood cell membranes. Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 319, 257-266.
- R.M. Uppu (1995). Novel kinetics in a biomimetic redox reaction involving NADH and tetrazolium salts in aqueous micellar solutions. J. Inorg. Biochem. 58, 193-207.
- R.M. Uppu (1995). Phenazine/dihydrophenazine redox couple as an inoffensive catalytic probe discerns premicellar aggregation in dilute aqueous solutions of Triton X-100. Langmuir 11, 1038-1040.
- W.A. Pryor, R. Cueto, X. Jin, W.H. Koppenol, M. Ngu-Schwemlein, G.L. Suadrito, P.L. Uppu, and R.M. Uppu (1995). A practical method for preparing peroxynitrite solutions of low ionic strength and free of hydrogen peroxide. Free Radic. Biol. Med. 18, 75-83 (ranked 64th among 100 highly cited articles published in Free Radical Biology and Medicine since its inception in the year1985).
- W.A. Pryor and R.M. Uppu (1993). A kinetic model for the competitive reactions of ozone with amino acid residues in proteins in reverse micelles. J. Biol. Chem. 268, 3120-3126.
- R.M. Uppu and W.A. Pryor (1994). The reactions of ozone with proteins and unsaturated fatty acids in reverse micelles. Chem. Res. Toxicol. 7, 47-55.
- R.M. Uppu and W.A. Pryor (1994). Ozonation of lysosome in the presence of oleate in reverse micilles of sodium di-2-ethylhexylsulfosuccinate. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Comm. 187, 473-479.
- G.L. Squadrito, R.M. Uppu, R. Cueto, and W.A. Pryor (1992). Production of the criegee ozonide during the ozonation of 1-palmitoyl-2-oleoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphotidylcholine liposomes. Lipids 27, 955-658.
- U.M. Rao (1989). Superoxide anion radical-independent pathway for reduction of tetrazolium saltsaerobic mixtures consisting of NAD(P)H, 5-methylphenazinium methyl sulfate in the presence of aqueous micelles of nonionic and cationic detergents. Free Radic. Biol. Med. 7, 491-497.
- U.M. Rao (1989). Source of superoxide anion radical in aerobic mixtures consisting of NAD(P)H, 5- methylphenazinium methyl sulfate and nitroblue tetrazolium chloride. Free Radic. Biol. Med. 7, 513-519.
- U.M. Rao(1989). A micellar model for investigating the chemical nature of hydrogen transfer in NAD(P)H dependent enzymatic reactions. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 159, 1330-1336.
- U.M. Rao (1982). Triton-X-100 catalysed reduction of iodonitrotetrazolium by NADH: A non-ionic micelle mediated redox reactions. Biochem. Int. 5, 585-593.